I’ve got to admit that I’m a bit of a language geek. I love finding out from where words or bits of words originate, and I actually love analysing spellings too, probably because I like working with visual patterns as well unpicking morphology. So, it pleases me greatly that the newest definition of dyslexia (see Towards a consensus on dyslexia: Findings from a Delphi study), which many assessors are now working with, finally includes specific reference to orthography. Back in the 1890s, when the ophthalmologist Rudolf Berlin first coined the term ‘dyslexia’ the concept of difficulties accessing print whilst having sound eyesight was what started the ball rolling. But then once the speech and language therapists took the lead in the mid-20th century, the focus shifted to deficits in phonological processing as the primary cause of dyslexia. It’s taken another 70 or so years, but it is pleasing to see that experts across various dyslexia-related domains can finally agree that there are without doubt multiple factors that affect the development of accurate and fluent reading and spelling…and orthography is indeed one of them.
So, what exactly is Orthography?
Orthography, the conventional system of the printed form of a language, serves as the backbone of written communication. It encompasses the rules and patterns that govern how words are represented visually, including the use of letters, diacritical marks (e.g. accents), and punctuation. Whilst often taken for granted by fluent readers and writers, orthography plays a significant role in literacy acquisition. Furthermore, it provides critical insights into the identification and support of individuals with dyslexia.
Orthography involves the visual representation of a language’s phonemes (speech sounds) and both graphemes (letters) and morphemes (units of meaning). It connects spoken language to written text through a system of symbols that must be learned and internalised. Different languages have orthographies that vary in complexity. For instance:
• Transparent orthographies (e.g., Finnish, Italian) have a straightforward letter-to-sound correspondence, making them easier to decode.
• Opaque orthographies (e.g., English, French) have inconsistent or complex spelling rules, presenting greater challenges for learners.
Really importantly, the complexity of an orthography directly influences the cognitive demands placed on learners as they develop reading and writing skills.
Dyslexia and Orthography
Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that affects an individual's ability to decode and encode written language, and so it can significantly hinder the development of literacy skills. Orthographic processing – the ability to recognise and remember written word forms – is a key area where individuals with dyslexia often face difficulties. These can include:
Students in exam
1. Letter Reversals
• Examples: Confusing "b" and "d," "p" and "q," or "n" and "u."
• Very common in early stages of learning to read and write, but can persist longer for those with dyslexia.
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2. Inconsistent Spelling
• Examples: Spelling the same word differently within the same text (e.g., "because" as "becos," "becaus," etc.).
• Difficulty in memorising word patterns and rules.
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3. Phoneme-to-Grapheme Errors
• Examples: Writing "fot" instead of "foot" or "bake" instead of "back."
• Challenges in mapping sounds (phonemes) to their corresponding letters (graphemes).
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4. Omissions and Additions
• Omissions: Leaving out letters or syllables (e.g., writing "hap" for "happy").
• Additions: Adding extra letters (e.g., writing "bigg" for "big").
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5. Transpositions
• Examples: Reversing the order of letters within a word, such as "form" instead of "from" or "gril" for "girl."
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6. Homophone Confusion
• Examples: Mixing up "there," "their," and "they’re" or "to," "too," and "two."
• Difficulty distinguishing words that sound the same but are spelled differently.
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7. Inconsistent Application of Rules
• Struggling with rules like silent letters, doubling consonants, or vowel combinations.
• Examples: Confusing "hopping" (doubling the "p") and "hoping" (no doubling).
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8. Difficulty with Irregular Words
• Examples: Struggling to spell non-phonetic words like "said" or "half".
• English’s irregular spelling patterns are especially challenging for dyslexic learners.
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9. Weak Word Recall
• Forgetting how to spell familiar words, even those used frequently.
• Example: Suddenly misspelling "what" as "wat."
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10. Inability to Recognise Word Boundaries
• Writing without clear spaces between words.
• Example: Writing "sheisrunning" instead of "she is running."
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11. Case Switching
• Mixing uppercase and lowercase letters within words.
• Examples: Writing "doG" or "HoUse."
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12. Difficulty with Suffixes and Prefixes
• Struggling to correctly add or modify suffixes and prefixes.
• Examples: Writing "walkt" instead of "walked" or "unhappyer" instead of "unhappier."
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13. Mirror Writing
• Writing letters or numbers backward (e.g., "Ɔ" instead of "C").
• Often associated with spatial and directional challenges.
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14. Struggles with Silent Letters
• Omitting silent letters in words like "knock," "write," or "honest."
• Examples: Writing "nock" for "knock."
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15. Handwriting Challenges
• Difficulty forming letters consistently and legibly, leading to additional orthographic errors.
• Can overlap with dyslexia, but is not a sign of dyslexia on its own.
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These difficulties reflect differences in the way the brain processes language and visual information i.e. printed symbols. Dyslexia is often linked to phonological deficits, but orthographic processing difficulties can exacerbate the challenges of reading and writing.
Understanding orthography is crucial in identifying dyslexia, particularly in languages with opaque spelling systems like English. Assessment tools, which may be purely observational or formal age-standardised tests, examine a child’s ability to carry out tasks such as matching letters (and numerals), discriminating between similar-looking letters and/or words, recognising irregular words with automaticity, recalling common spelling patterns, and so on.
Supporting Learners with Dyslexia
Given the significant role of orthography in literacy, effective support for individuals with dyslexia often includes explicit instruction in spelling and reading. Multisensory approaches focus on strengthening the connection between letters and sounds while providing repeated practice with word patterns and irregular spellings. For languages with opaque orthographies, additional emphasis may be placed on retention strategies (e.g. using mnemonics) and even the use of assistive technologies, such as text-to-speech software or spell-check tools.
Conclusion
Orthography is more than a set of arbitrary spelling rules; it is a fundamental component of language that shapes how we read and write. For individuals with dyslexia, challenges in processing print underscore the need for targeted interventions and reasonable adjustments. By deepening our understanding of orthography and its role in literacy, teachers and parents can better support learners in overcoming obstacles and achieving their full potential in reading and written communication.
Love this. I am anew assessor but I have two children and a husband with dyslexia. This is so useful and everything in it rings a bell with my experiences. Thank you